[quote]streamline wrote:
On the other hand you don’t really see any oriental runners at olympic levels. …[/quote]
Wait until the Olympics. You may see otherwise.
Regular Gonzalez nailed it, it is not simply African-Americans. The domination of sprinting by blacks is directly linked to those of West African heritage.
The comparison to gymnastics is weak. First, just like the winter sports, it is partly a numbers game. Not many blacks, proportionately ever get introduced to the sport. Whites once dominated sprinting, over the years as the barriers to entry have been eliminated, we have seen a gradual takeover of the sprints. The opportunity is still there for whites, and they still perform well overall at the high school level, but once you get to the elite level they aer slowly weaned out.
In addition to this, gymnastics is a completely different sport favoring different body types. A short stature with short limbs, especially for males, provides the best advantage. This is in direct contradiction to sprinting. So perhaps afterall gymnastics does favor whites, or more likely asians. Weightlifting incidentally favors a similar body type.
As for Wariner, there are of course exceptions. The 2000 200m olympic gold was won by a white man, Greek athlete Konstantinos Kenteris. So, it is not impossible for whites to compete, but it is difficult. In Kenteris’ case, it should be noted that he was the first white man to win gold in the 200m since 1980.
Back to Wariner, he is a 400m specialist, which while still a sprint, it undeniably has a much higher endurace factor than the 200m and 100m. There are also typically two types of 400m guys, those that double over and can run a 200, and those can double and run an 800. The recent trend is that the best 400m runners are the type that can also run a good 200, which unsurprisingly is again dominated by those from West Africa. While Wariner has in the past competed in the 200m, if you look at his body type and running style, he more closely resembles an 800m runner than a 200m runner. Again, he is definitely an exception, and I don’t mean to take anything away from his hard work, but it is ignorant to believe there aren’t hundreds of other athletes working just as hard that simply don’t have his genetics, or the genetics of the other blacks dominating the sprints.
Larger penis = lower center of gravity.
It may be genetic, but for a long time it was “African-Americans” who dominated the sprinst, and people always forget one thing about “African-Americans”. A majority of Blacks have more than just “African” Heritage considering how mixed the Black race is are you saying that this “African” gene is DOMINANT, if so what is the gene for? Fiber Type, Testosterone, Blood Pressure?
When it comes to Miami and speed competition, you have to consider that even black people from other states couldn’t compete with Miami for a period of 15-20 years. When I spoke to athletes that went down there it started to make sense, they had a culture that centered around top speed and football starting from a very young age. Living in jersey the only time I would see people at our track was during a track meet or in the summer when they think they can knock off 20 lbs in a week, and they were running verrrrryyy slow. This is versus Miami where people would just hang out at the track. Some tracks would have everybody from NFL athletes down to middle schoolers kicking it and racing. If your 11 years old racing against NFL and D1 players every day your going to develop a work capacity for speed.
In general African-Americans participate more in high speed sports, so the ones that do have great genetics are more likely to develop their full potential for speed.
As athletic trianing develops the high speed and power landscape has become more diverse. Now it’s Pavlik that has the power in his punches, and Lui Xiang winning the hurdles. There may or may not be a case for African-American dominance but there has been no scientific research to confirm that theory. I suppose it would be very hard to study since you hwould have to specifically classify what is black.
i guess this isnt a very popular theory amongst majority of the posters here but i think black people have better genetics towards things involving sports. our african ancestors had to chase down, hunt and kill animals to survive. it would seem to me that logically the level of hand eye coordination, depth perception, and flat out athletic ability would be higher in a people who share the same genetics as those people.
sure if you practice really hard at something you can be good too. but i think the amount youre willing to even practice something depends on how you progress at it. if i absolutely sucked at something and worked my ass off at it and still barely improved i probaly wouldnt keep practicing that hard at it and id pursue something i was better at. i think the reason majority of black kids as mufasa said pursue basketball careers is because they express an early talent for it.
statistically black people are also worse swimmers than europeans or european-americans. why could that be? its not because more white people have access to pools because none of the white i know have ever had a pool and all know how to swim.yet none of the black i know possess this ability. i think the reason really is just as simple as genetics and traits can be passed down, it doesnt entitle you to be the best at something but it definately gives you an advantage.
[quote]LiveFromThe781 wrote:
statistically black people are also worse swimmers than europeans or european-americans. why could that be? its not because more white people have access to pools because none of the white i know have ever had a pool and all know how to swim.yet none of the black i know possess this ability. i think the reason really is just as simple as genetics and traits can be passed down, it doesnt entitle you to be the best at something but it definately gives you an advantage. [/quote]
Black people are naturally afraid of water deep enough to stand in. In fact, our hatred of swimming is equally opposed to our love for watermelon and white chicks.
I generally think that African and recently African-descended people have some advantage in some sports and athletic measures but it tends to only show at elite levels of competition. If you take an average white guy and an average black guy - do you think that the black guy’s extra half-inch on his vertical or ability to run 100m a few hundredths of a second faster is going to make much difference in a pickup game of basketball? Probably not.
But between two athletes who have developed their sports-specific skills to the highest possible level being able to jump a little bit higher or being able to run a just a little faster will translate into a pretty big performance advantage.
Thanks Doug, that was the info I was looking for.
While I don’t agree with the the book title someone posted above: “Why blacks dominate all sports”, I think it’s pretty safe to say they dominate certain sports requiring bursts of speed, and that the reason for the dominance is at least partly genetic.
The T-Nation article also mentioned lower body fat %, which I’ve noticed as well. So many black guys are ripped. Cool info. I guess I can still shoot for a gold in swimming!
[quote]LiveFromThe781 wrote:
i guess this isnt a very popular theory amongst majority of the posters here but i think black people have better genetics towards things involving sports. our african ancestors had to chase down, hunt and kill animals to survive. it would seem to me that logically the level of hand eye coordination, depth perception, and flat out athletic ability would be higher in a people who share the same genetics as those people. [/quote]
I’m sorry but that theory doesn’t really hold much water. Hunter-gatherers in Europe were doing the same things and more recently since agriculture probably began in the middle-east and spread to Africa before reaching Europe.
[quote]LiveFromThe781 wrote:
i guess this isnt a very popular theory amongst majority of the posters here but i think black people have better genetics towards things involving sports. our african ancestors had to chase down, hunt and kill animals to survive. it would seem to me that logically the level of hand eye coordination, depth perception, and flat out athletic ability would be higher in a people who share the same genetics as those people.
sure if you practice really hard at something you can be good too. but i think the amount youre willing to even practice something depends on how you progress at it. if i absolutely sucked at something and worked my ass off at it and still barely improved i probaly wouldnt keep practicing that hard at it and id pursue something i was better at. i think the reason majority of black kids as mufasa said pursue basketball careers is because they express an early talent for it.
statistically black people are also worse swimmers than europeans or european-americans. why could that be? its not because more white people have access to pools because none of the white i know have ever had a pool and all know how to swim.yet none of the black i know possess this ability. i think the reason really is just as simple as genetics and traits can be passed down, it doesnt entitle you to be the best at something but it definately gives you an advantage. [/quote]
genetic traits… white people have fins?
The flip side of this is that black people are not often found in ‘thinking’ positions- For example in rugby there are no black fly half which is like the Quarter Back of Rugby- also i dont know if there are many black quarter backs either??? The question remains though- Why?
[quote]Airtruth wrote:
LiveFromThe781 wrote:
i guess this isnt a very popular theory amongst majority of the posters here but i think black people have better genetics towards things involving sports. our african ancestors had to chase down, hunt and kill animals to survive. it would seem to me that logically the level of hand eye coordination, depth perception, and flat out athletic ability would be higher in a people who share the same genetics as those people.
sure if you practice really hard at something you can be good too. but i think the amount youre willing to even practice something depends on how you progress at it. if i absolutely sucked at something and worked my ass off at it and still barely improved i probaly wouldnt keep practicing that hard at it and id pursue something i was better at. i think the reason majority of black kids as mufasa said pursue basketball careers is because they express an early talent for it.
statistically black people are also worse swimmers than europeans or european-americans. why could that be? its not because more white people have access to pools because none of the white i know have ever had a pool and all know how to swim.yet none of the black i know possess this ability. i think the reason really is just as simple as genetics and traits can be passed down, it doesnt entitle you to be the best at something but it definately gives you an advantage.
genetic traits… white people have fins?[/quote]
Higher body fat.
We float better. 
[quote]Professor X wrote:
LiveFromThe781 wrote:
statistically black people are also worse swimmers than europeans or european-americans. why could that be? its not because more white people have access to pools because none of the white i know have ever had a pool and all know how to swim.yet none of the black i know possess this ability. i think the reason really is just as simple as genetics and traits can be passed down, it doesnt entitle you to be the best at something but it definately gives you an advantage.
Black people are naturally afraid of water deep enough to stand in. In fact, our hatred of swimming is equally opposed to our love for watermelon and white chicks.[/quote]
Hahahahahahahahahaha.
Where are these statistics that black people are worse swimmers?
[quote]Christine wrote:
Airtruth wrote:
LiveFromThe781 wrote:
i guess this isnt a very popular theory amongst majority of the posters here but i think black people have better genetics towards things involving sports. our african ancestors had to chase down, hunt and kill animals to survive. it would seem to me that logically the level of hand eye coordination, depth perception, and flat out athletic ability would be higher in a people who share the same genetics as those people.
sure if you practice really hard at something you can be good too. but i think the amount youre willing to even practice something depends on how you progress at it. if i absolutely sucked at something and worked my ass off at it and still barely improved i probaly wouldnt keep practicing that hard at it and id pursue something i was better at. i think the reason majority of black kids as mufasa said pursue basketball careers is because they express an early talent for it.
statistically black people are also worse swimmers than europeans or european-americans. why could that be? its not because more white people have access to pools because none of the white i know have ever had a pool and all know how to swim.yet none of the black i know possess this ability. i think the reason really is just as simple as genetics and traits can be passed down, it doesnt entitle you to be the best at something but it definately gives you an advantage.
genetic traits… white people have fins?
Higher body fat.
We float better.
[/quote]
I can see your body fat very well
[quote]Airtruth wrote:
Christine wrote:
Airtruth wrote:
LiveFromThe781 wrote:
i guess this isnt a very popular theory amongst majority of the posters here but i think black people have better genetics towards things involving sports. our african ancestors had to chase down, hunt and kill animals to survive. it would seem to me that logically the level of hand eye coordination, depth perception, and flat out athletic ability would be higher in a people who share the same genetics as those people.
sure if you practice really hard at something you can be good too. but i think the amount youre willing to even practice something depends on how you progress at it. if i absolutely sucked at something and worked my ass off at it and still barely improved i probaly wouldnt keep practicing that hard at it and id pursue something i was better at. i think the reason majority of black kids as mufasa said pursue basketball careers is because they express an early talent for it.
statistically black people are also worse swimmers than europeans or european-americans. why could that be? its not because more white people have access to pools because none of the white i know have ever had a pool and all know how to swim.yet none of the black i know possess this ability. i think the reason really is just as simple as genetics and traits can be passed down, it doesnt entitle you to be the best at something but it definately gives you an advantage.
genetic traits… white people have fins?
Higher body fat.
We float better.
I can see your body fat very well[/quote]
Yep. I float. 
Seriously though, I have spent a lot of time on beaches in Central and South America, in communities with many people of African decent, and guess what? They can swim.
Unbelievable, I know, but it’s a true story.
[quote]Christine wrote:
Seriously though, I have spent a lot of time on beaches in Central and South America, in communities with many people of African decent, and guess what? They can swim.
Unbelievable, I know, but it’s a true story. [/quote]
Of course, otherwise they get eaten by crocodiles.
Africa is a pretty big diverse continent. The most dominant sprinters are mostly west African. There is definitely some genetic component that makes this so, to deny it would be silly.
Not all black people are of west African descent and (amazingly) not all black people are the same so it is no wonder some people get frustrated by this discussion.
[quote]Zap Branigan wrote:
Christine wrote:
Seriously though, I have spent a lot of time on beaches in Central and South America, in communities with many people of African decent, and guess what? They can swim.
Unbelievable, I know, but it’s a true story.
Of course, otherwise they get eaten by crocodiles.
Africa is a pretty big diverse continent. The most dominant sprinters are mostly west African. There is definitely some genetic component that makes this so, to deny it would be silly.
Not all black people are of west African descent and (amazingly) not all black people are the same so it is no wonder some people get frustrated by this discussion.[/quote]
Bullshit. I dare you to find even ONE difference between me and any other black man.
Here you go:
[quote]I don�??t think �??athleticism�?? is just a byword for black. What is meant by athleticism (as opposed to athletic ability, which is a much broader and more nebulous concept) is the ability to move one�??s body quickly (in the sense of acceleration, change of direction, and top speed) and powerfully. This is largely a function biomechanics and musculo-tendon physiology and chemistry. Differences in physique and physiology clearly give blacks an advantage over whites in this respect and the word �??athleticism�?? is applied to them much more often because they are much more likely to possess a high degree of �??athleticism.�??
Re physique, blacks and whites, when matched for SES variables, are virtually identical in average height, however, their physique and body proportions are much different. Blacks have shorter torsos, broader shoulders, smaller ribcages, narrower hips, and longer limbs (with comparative elongation of the distal segments). Fit samples of blacks and whites appear to be about the same weight on average (or perhaps blacks are marginally heavier), but fit blacks have on average less body fat, particularly on their limbs. It follows that blacks have a greater fat free body mass (i.e., bone, muscle and viscera) than whites. The smaller ribcage and narrower pelvis would indicate less viscera weight and indeed, blacks have been found to have substantially more total body musculature and denser, heavier bones than whites. This greater musculature is also distributed differently. Blacks show considerably more musculature in their glutes and thighs than whites, which gives a substantial advantage in locomotion. Blacks have also been shown to have on average greater cross sectional thickness in their limb musculature than whites, with the difference much greater in the proximal than distal limb segments. Naturally higher average testosterone levels and a greater number of testosterone receptors probably contribute to the leaner more heavily muscled physique of blacks compared to whites.
The average physiological differences give blacks a substantial advantage in athleticism. Narrower hips mean that locomotive force is applied closer to the center of the body�??s mass, leading to greater biomechanical efficiency by putting a greater portion of the force generated into forward locomotion and causing less to be wasted in rotational force on the body (not to mention the smaller adjustments that have to be constantly made while running or walking to move the center of gravity towards the leg in contact with the ground). Longer limbs provide greater reach, stride length (both forward and lateral), and longer acceleration paths, both for imparting velocity to thrown objects and for accelerating one�??s own body for jumping. The problem with long limbs is that they move the center of mass farther from the pivot point (i.e., the joint), causing greater torque and requiring more force to accelerate the limb or change its direction. However, here again black physique provides them with the best of both worlds. The heavy musculature concentrated in the hips and in the proximal segments keeps most of the mass close to the pivot point and provides a lot of force, and the relatively long, thin distal segments don�??t create that much torque while still giving the benefits of long reach, stride and acceleration paths. Blacks lower average body fat and viscera weight from comparatively short torsos with small ribcages provide a greater power to weight ratio and less top-heaviness, with a greater portion of their mass being located in the musculature of the hips and thighs, which provide locomotive power.
Muscle and tendon physiology also contribute to black �??athleticism.�?? It is well publicized that blacks have a higher percentage of fast twitch muscle fibers and higher levels of glycotic and phosphogenic enzyme activity levels, when diet and activity levels are controlled for, which would provide an advantage in explosive, short-duration muscular exertions. Additionally, blacks have comparatively long tendons and short muscle bellies compared to total muscle-tendon length compared to whites. When doing repetitive movements like running, the muscle and tendon of the opposing muscle group to contracting muscles are stretched, which stores energy like an elastic band, which is then added to the backstroke as the opposing muscles contract back. (Try taking an appendage such as a finger and stretching it back and notice how it snaps back to its resting position when you release it to see this stored energy effect.) Tendons are more elastic than muscles and contribute more to this effect. Blacks�?? comparatively longer tendons would give them comparatively greater energy storage and retransfer while running, causing them to spend less energy and be more efficient. It is also established that blacks have greater muscle elasticity as well as proportionally longer tendons (their tendon elasticity is about the same as whites).[/quote]
References:
[quote]Books (including studies referenced therein):
Jon Entine, Taboo.
C. Bouchard, R. Malina, and L. Perusse, Genetics of Fitness and Physical Performance.
Barry Bogin, Patterns of Human Growth, 2nd Ed.
Tanner & Eveleth, Worldwide Variation in Human Growth, 2nd Ed
C. S. Coon, Racial Adaptations. (Useful info for effect of retinal pigmentation on reaction times.)
M. Levin, Why Race Matters (In addition to the section discussing race and athletic ability, there is data in other parts of the book on various psychomotor skills.)
J. P. Rushton, Race, Evolution and Behavior. (Deals with subject peripherally).
Michael H. Hart, Understanding Human History. (Deals with subject peripherally).
Articles:
J Appl Physiol 1986 Nov;61(5):1758-61, Skeletal muscle characteristics in sedentary black and Caucasian males. Ama PF, Simoneau JA, Boulay MR, Serresse O, Theriault G, Bouchard C.
Ethn Health 1996 Dec;1(4):337-47; Ethnic differences in body composition and their relation to health and disease in women. Gasperino J.
Am J Clin Nutr 2000 Jun;71(6):1392-402, Measures of body composition in blacks and whites: a comparative review. Wagner DR, Heyward VH.
J Appl Physiol 1984 Jun;56(6):1647-9, Density of lean body mass is greater in blacks than in whites. Schutte JE, Townsend EJ, Hugg J, Shoup RF, Malina RM, Blomqvist CG.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995 Aug;80(8):2291-7, Greater secretion of growth hormone in black than in white men: possible factor in greater bone mineral density–a clinical research center study. Wright NM, Renault J, Willi S, Veldhuis JD, Pandey JP, Gordon L, Key LL, Bell NH.
J Natl Cancer Inst 1986 Jan;76(1):45-8; Serum testosterone levels in healthy young black and white men. Ross R, Bernstein L, Judd H, Hanisch R, Pike M, Henderson B.
J Appl Physiol 1999 Mar;86(3):915-23. African runners exhibit greater fatigue resistance, lower lactate accumulation, and higher oxidative enzyme activity. Weston AR, Karamizrak O, Smith A, Noakes TD, Myburgh KH.
J Appl Physiol 1993 Oct;75(4):1822-7, Superior fatigue resistance of elite black South African distance runners. Coetzer P, Noakes TD, Sanders B, Lambert MI, Bosch AN, Wiggins T, Dennis SC.
Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1990;61(1-2):68-72, Physiological differences between black and white runners during a treadmill marathon. Bosch AN, Goslin BR, Noakes TD, Dennis SC.
Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995 Aug;5(4):209-21, Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners. Saltin B, Larsen H, Terrados N, Bangsbo J, Bak T, Kim CK, Svedenhag J, Rolf CJ.
Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995 Aug;5(4):222-30, Morphology, enzyme activities and buffer capacity in leg muscles of Kenyan and Scandinavian runners. Saltin B, Kim CK, Terrados N, Larsen H, Svedenhag J, Rolf CJ.
Racial differences in the sums of skinfolds and percentage of body fat estimated from impedance in black and white girls, 9 to 19 years of age: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study. Morrison JA, Barton BA, Obarzanek E, Crawford PB, Guo SS, Schreiber GB. Division of Cardiology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio 45229, USA. morrj2@chmcc.org
Comparison of viscoelastic characteristics in triceps surae between Black
and White athletes. Fukashiro S, Abe T, Shibayama A, Brechue WF.
Total body potassium differs by sex and race across the adult age span. He Q, Heo M, Heshka S, Wang J, Pierson RN Jr, Albu J, Wang Z, Heymsfield SB, Gallagher D. Obesity Research Center, St Luke’s-Roosevelt Hospital, and Institute of Human Nutrition, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 1025, USA.
Peering Under the Hood of Africa’s Runners, by Constance Holden
Current Science, Vol. 92, No. 1. 2007. ACTN3: Athlete Gene Prevalence in North India. Goel and Mittal.
Nature Genetics, Published online: 9 September 2007 | doi:10.1038/ng2122
Loss of ACTN3 gene function alters mouse muscle metabolism and shows evidence of positive selection in humans. Daniel G MacArthur1,2, Jane T Seto1,2, Joanna M Raftery1, Kate G Quinlan1,2, Gavin A Huttley3, Jeff W Hook4, Frances A Lemckert4, Anthony J Kee5, Michael R Edwards6, Yemima Berman1, Edna C Hardeman5, Peter W Gunning2,4, Simon Easteal3, Nan Yang1 & Kathryn N North1,2
Black sprinters and the anthropology of West African populations
�?� P.F.M. Ama, J.A. Simoneau, M.R. Boulay, O. Serresse, G. Thiériault, C. Bouchard: Skeletal muscle characteristics in sedentary Black and Caucasian males, Journal of Applied Physiology, 5/1986; p. 1758-1761
�?� P.F.M. Ama, P. Lagasse, C. Bouchard, J.A. Simoneau: Anaerobic performances in black and white subjects, MSSE, 4/1990
�?� P.F.M. Ama, S. Ambassa: Buoyancy of African black and European white males, American Journal of Human Biology, 9/1997
�?� L. Gerace et al.: Skeletal differences between black and white men, American Journal of Human biology, 6/1994
�?� Bradley C. Nindl, William J. Kraemer, Wesley H. Emmert, Scott A. Mazzetti, Lincoln A. Gotschalk, Margot Putukian, Wayne J. Sebastianelli, John F. Patton: Comparison of body composition assesment among lean black and white male collegiate athletes, MSSE, 5/1998
�?� Robert M. Malina: Racial and ethnic variation in the motor development and performance of American children, Canadian Journal of Sports Sciences, 1988; p. 136-143
�?� Takashi Abe, James B. Brown, William F. Brechue: Architectural characteristics of muscle in black and white college football players, MSSE, 10/1999
�?� Kenneth J. Ellis, Steven A. Abrams, William W. Wong: Body composition of a young, multiethnic female population, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1997; p. 724-31
�?� W.J. Duey, D.R. Bassett jr., D.J. Torok, E.T. Howley, V. Bond, P. Mancuso, R. Trudell: Skeletal muscle fibre type and capillary density in college-aged blacks and whites, Annals of Human Biology, 4/1997
�?� N.A. Ponthieux, D.G. Barker: Relationships between race and physical fitness, Research Quaterly, No. 4/1965
�?� Jose Antonio, Chris Street: Speed Demons - The domination of sport by blacks, Strength Training, Bodybuilding & Online Supplement Store - T NATION
�?� Bruce Ettinger, Stephen Sidney, Steven R. Cummings, Cesar Libanati, Daniel D. Bikle, Irene S. Tekawa, Kimberly Tolan, Peter Steiger: Racial differences in bone density between young adult black and white subjects, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 1997; p. 429-434
Kenyans and Ethiopans
�?� Marco Tartaglia, Giuseppina Scano, Gian Franco de Stefano: An anthropogenetic study on the Oromo and Amhara of Central Ethiopia, American Journal of Human Biology, 8/1996
�?� B. Saltin, C.K. Kim, N. Terrados, H. Larssen, J. Svedenhag, C.J. Rolf: Morphology, enzyme activities and buffer capacity in leg muscles of Kenyan and Scandinavian runners, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 5/1995
�?� B. Saltin, C.K. Kim, N. Terrados, H. Larssen, J. Svedenhag, C.J. Rolf: Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 5/1995
�?� Alon Eliakim, Dan Nemet, Louis Shenkman: Serum enzyme activities following long-distance running: Comparison between Ethiopian and white athletes, Israel Journal of Medical Sciences, 11/1995
Black South Africans
�?� Adéle R. Weston, O. Karamizrak, A. Smith, T.D. Noakes, Kathryn H. Myburgh: African runners exhibit greater fatigue resistance, lower lactate accumulation and higher oxidative enzyme activity, Journal of Applied Physiology, 3/1999; p. 915-923
�?� Andrew N. Bosch, Brian R. Goslin, Timothy D. Noakes, Steven C. Dennis: Physiological differences between black and white runners during a treadmill marathon, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 1990; p. 68-72
�?� Pieter Coetzer, Timothy D. Noakes, Barry Sanders, Michael I. Lambert, Andrew N. Bosch, Toni Wiggins, Steven C. Dennis: Superior fatigue resistance of black South African endurance runners, Journal of Applied Physiology, 4/1993; p. 1822-27
�?� Adéle R. Weston, Z. Mbambo, Kathryn H. Myburgh: Running economy of African and Caucasian distance runners, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 6/2000, p. 1130-4
General articles
�?� Tim Noakes: Why do Africans run so swiftly?, South African Journal of Science, 11-12/1998
�?� David R. Basset, jr. and Edward T. Howley: Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinats of endurance performance, MSSE, 1/2000; p. 70-84
�?� Ward-Smith, A.J.: Aerobic and anaerobic energy conversion during high-intensity exercise, MSSE, 12/1999, p. 1855-1860
�?� Scientific American: Building the Elite Athlete, September 2000, especially pp. 90-97 (Gary Taubes: Deconstructing the Taboo), 98-103 (Reinout van Wagtendonk: Unlikely Domin-ation)
�?� Jesper L. Andersen, Peter Schjerling, Bengt Saltin: Muscle, genes and athletic performance, Scientific American, September 2000
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (see for body dimension comparisons).[/quote]